Neurotransmitter

  Neurotransmitters are chemicals that are used to relay, amplify and modulate signals between a neuron and another cell. According to the prevailing beliefs of the 1960s, a chemical can be classified as a neurotransmitter if it meets the following conditions:

• There are precursors and/or synthesis enzymes located in the presynaptic neuron;
• The chemical must be present in the presynaptic element
• It is available in sufficient quantity in the presynaptic neuron to affect the postsynaptic neuron;
• There must be postsynaptic receptors and the ability for the chemical to bind to said receptors
• A biochemical mechanism for inactivation must be present.

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Types of neurotransmitters

There are many different ways to classify neurotransmitters. Often, dividing them into amino acids, peptides, and monoamines is sufficient for many purposes.

Some more precise divisions are as follows:

• Around 10 "small-molecule neurotransmitters" are known:
  • acetylcholine
  • monoamines (epinephrine E, norepinephrine NE, dopamine DA, serotonin 5-HT, and melatonin)
  • 3 or 4 amino acids, depending on exact definition used: (primarily glutamic acid, GABA, aspartic acid & glycine)
  • Purines, (Adenosine, ATP, GTP and their derivatives)
  • Fatty acids are also receiving attention as the potential endogenous cannabinoid.^{[citation needed]}
• Over 50 neuroactive peptides (vasopressin, somatostatin, neurotensin, etc.) have been found, among them hormones such as LH or insulin that have specific local actions in addition to their long-range signalling properties.
• Single ions, such as synaptically-released zinc, are also considered neurotransmitters by some.^{[citation needed]}
• Nitrogen monoxide (NO)

The major "workhorse" neurotransmitters of the brain are glutamic acid (=glutamate) and GABA.

Effects

Some examples of neurotransmitter action:

• Acetylcholine - voluntary movement of the muscles
• Norepinephrine - wakefulness or arousal
• Dopamine - voluntary movement and motivation, "wanting", pleasure, associated with addiction and love
• Serotonin - memory, emotions, wakefulness, sleep and temperature regulation
• GABA (gamma aminobutyric acid) - inhibition of motor neurons
• Glycine - spinal reflexes and motor behaviour
• Neuromodulators - sensory transmission-especially pain

It is important to appreciate that it is the receptor that dictates the neurotransmitter's effect^{[citation needed]}

Neurotransmitter systems

Main article: Neurotransmitter systems

Neurons expressing certain types of neurotransmitters sometimes form distinct systems, where activation of the system causes effects in large volumes of the brain, called volume transmission.

The major neurotransmitter systems are the noradrenaline (norepinephrine) system, the dopamine system, the serotonin system and the cholinergic system.

Drugs targeting the neurotransmitter of such systems affects the whole system, and explains the mode of action of many drugs;

• Cocaine, for example, blocks the reuptake of dopamine, leaving these neurotransmitters in the synaptic gap longer.
• Prozac is a selective serotonin reuptake inhibitor (SSRI), hence potentiating the effect of naturally released serotonin.
• AMPT prevents the conversion of tyrosine to L-DOPA, the precursor to dopamine; reserpine prevents dopamine storage within vesicles; and deprenyl inhibits monoamine oxidase (MAO)-B and thus increases dopamine levels.

Diseases may affect specific neurotransmitter systems. For example, Parkinson's disease is at least in part related to failure of dopaminergic cells in deep-brain nuclei, for example the substantia nigra. Treatments potentiating the effect of dopamine precursors have been proposed and effected, with moderate success.

A brief comparison of the major neurotransmitter systems follows:

Common neurotransmitters

See also

• Neuropsychopharmacology
• Nervous system
• Gasotransmitters

References