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Fullerene chemistry
Fullerene chemistry is a field of organic chemistry devoted to the chemical properties of fullerenes.[1][2][3]. Research in this field is driven by the need to functionalize fullerenes and tune their properties. For example fullerene is notoriously insoluble and adding a suitable group can enhance solubility. By adding a polymerizable group, a fullerene polymer can be obtained. Functionalized fullerenes are divided into two classes: exohedral with substituents outside the cage and endohedral fullerenes with trapped molecules inside the cage. Additional recommended knowledge
Chemical properties of fullerenes
Fullerene or C60 is soccer-ball-shaped or Ih with 12 pentagons and 20 hexagons. According to Euler's theorem these 12 pentagons are required for closure of the carbon network consisting of n hexagons and C60 is the first stable fullerene because it is the smallest possible to obey this rule. In this structure none of the pentagons make contact with each other. Both C60 and its relative C70 obey this so-called isolated pentagon rule (IPR). The next homologue C84 has 24 IPR isomers of which several are isolated and another 51,568 non-IPR isomers. Non-IPR fullerenes have thus far only been isolated as endohedral fullerenes such as Tb3N@C84 with two fused pentagons at the apex of an egg-shaped cage [4] Because of the molecule's spherical shape the carbon atoms are highly pyramidalized, which has far-reaching consequences for reactivity. It is estimated that strain energy constitutes 80% of the heat of formation. The conjugated carbon atoms respond to deviation from planarity by orbital rehybridization of the sp² orbitals and pi orbitals to a sp2.27 orbital with a gain in p-character. The p lobes extend further outside the surface than they do into the interior of the sphere and this is one of the reasons a fullerene is electronegative. The other reason is that the empty low-lying pi* orbitals also have high s character. The double bonds in fullerene are not all the same. Two groups can be identified: 30 so-called [6,6] double bonds connect two hexagons and 60 [5,6] bonds connect a hexagon and a pentagon. Of the two the [6,6] bonds are shorter with more double-bond character and therefore a hexagon is often represented as a cyclohexatriene and a pentagon as a pentalene or [5]radialene. In other words, although the carbon atoms in fullerene are all conjugated the superstructure is not a super aromatic compound. The X-ray diffraction bond length values are 135.5 pm for the [6,6] bond and 146.7 pm for the [5,6] bond. C60 fullerene has 60 pi electrons but a closed shell configuration requires 72 electrons. The fullerene is able to acquire the missing electrons by reaction with potassium to form first the K6C606- salt and then the K12C6012- In this compound the bond length alternation observed in the parent molecule has vanished. Fullerene reactions
Fullerenes tend to react as electrophiles. An additional driving force is relief of strain when double bonds become saturated. Key in this type of reaction is the level of functionalization i.e. monoaddition or multiple additions and in case of multiple additions their topological relationships (new substituents huddled together or evenly spaced).
Fullerenes as ligandsFullerene is a ligand in organometallic chemistry. The [6,6] double bond is electron-deficient and forms metallic bonds with η = 2 hapticity. C60 fullerene reacts with tungsten hexacarbonyl W(CO)6 to the (η²-C60)W(CO)5 complex in a hexane solution in direct sunlight [7]. Multistep fullerene synthesisAlthough the procedure for the synthesis of the C60 fullerene is well established (generation of a large current between two nearby graphite electrodes in an inert atmosphere) a 2002 study described an organic synthesis of the compound starting from simple organic compounds [8] [9]. In the final step a large polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbon consisting of 13 hexagons and three pentagons is submitted to flash vacuum pyrolysis at 1100°C and 0.01 Torr. The three carbon chlorine bonds serve as free radical incubators and the ball is stiched up in a no-doubt complex series of radical reactions. The chemical yield is low: 0.1 to 1%. This method is considered by many specialists as a variation of cumbustion method of fullerenes production rather than as organic synthesis[citation needed]. A small percentage of fullerenes is formed in any process which involves burning of hydrocarbons, e.g. in candle burning. The yield through a combustion method is often above 1%. The method proposed above does not provide any advantage for synthesis of fulerenes compared to usual combustion method, and therefore, the organic synthesis of fullerenes remains a challenge for chemistry. Open-cage fullerenesA part of fullerene research is devoted to so-called open-cage fullerenes whereby one or more bonds are removed chemically exposing an orifice [10]. In this way it is possible to insert into it small molecules such as hydrogen, helium or lithium. The first such open-cage fullerene was reported in 1995 [11]. In endohedral hydrogen fullerenes the opening, hydrogen insertion and closing back up has already been demonstrated. Nanotube chemistryCarbon nanotubes, also part of the fullerene family, consist of graphene sheets rolled up into a cylinder. Unlike the spherical fullerenes made up of hexagons and pentagons, nanotubes only have hexagons present but in terms of reactivity both systems have much in common. Due to electrostatic forces nanotubes have a nasty tendency to cluster together in large bundles and many potential applications require an exfoliation process. One way to do this is by chemical surface modification. A useful tool for the analysis of derivatised nanotubes is Raman spectroscopy which shows a G-band (G for graphite) for the native nanotubes at 1580 cm-1 and a D-band (D for defect) at 1280 cm-1 when the graphite lattice is disrupted with conversion of sp² to sp³ hybridized carbon. The ratio of both peaks ID/IG is taken as a measure of functionalization. Other tools are UV spectroscopy where pristine nanaotubes show distinct Van Hove singularities where functionalized tubes do not and simple TGA analysis. In one type of chemical modification an aniline is oxidized to a diazonium intermediate which after expulsion of nitrogen forms a covalent bond as an aryl radical [12] [13]: Also known are protocols for Diels-Alder reactions, one assisted by chromium hexacarbonyl and high pressure [14]. The ID/IG ratio for reaction with Danishefsky’s diene is 2.6. Fullerene purificationFullerene purification is the process of obtaining a fullerene compound free of contamination. In fullerene production mixtures of C60, C70 and higher homologues are always formed. Fullerene purification is key to fullerene science and determines fullerene prices and the success of practical applications of fullerenes. The first available purification method for C60 fullerene was by HPLC from which small amounts could be generated at large expense. A practical laboratory-scale method for purification of soot enriched in C60 and C70 starts with extraction in toluene followed by filtration with a paper filter. The solvent is evaporated and the residue (the toluene-soluble soot fraction) redissolved in toluene and subjected to column chromatography. C60 elutes first with a purple color and C70 is next displaying a reddish-brown color [15]. In nanotube processing the established purification method for removing amorphous carbon and metals is by competitive oxidation (often a sulfuric acid / nitric acid mixture). It is assumed that this oxidation creates oxygen containing groups (hydroxyl, carbonyl, carboxyl) on the nanotube surface which electrostatically stabilize them in water and which can later be utilized in chemical functionalization. One report [16] reveals that the oxygen containing groups in actuality combine with carbon contaminations absorbed to the nanotube wall that can be removed by a simple base wash. Cleaned nanotubes are reported to have reduced D/G ratio indicative of less functionalization, and the absence of oxygen is also apparent from IR spectroscopy and X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy. Experimental purification strategies
References
Categories: Geodesic polyarenes | Nanomaterials |
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This article is licensed under the GNU Free Documentation License. It uses material from the Wikipedia article "Fullerene_chemistry". A list of authors is available in Wikipedia. |